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4 Amends Code Re: LightingCITYOF MEMORANDUM TO: Park & Recreation Commission FROM: DATE: SUB J: Cynthia Kirchoff, Planner I January 20, 1999 Amendment to Section 20-913. Lighting BACKGROUND In response to resident's concern that existing outdoor lighting fixtures are unnecessary and obtrusive, staff has proposed an ordinance amendment. This ordinance amendment seeks to minimize glare caused by improperly styled or located light fixtures. This includes fixtures located on streets as well as those in parking and recreational facilities. Staff is seeking direction and feedback from the Park & Recreation Commission regarding the ordinance amendment. PLANNING COMMISSION UPDATE This item was reviewed by the Planning Commission on November 18, 1998. It was at this meeting that it was recommended that staff prepare an amendment to the ordinance. In conjunction with the lighting discussion, concern was expressed about the glaring affects of recreational facility lights. Lake Ann Park was cited as an example. An amendment was prepared that specifies the maximum height of lights on poles, the type of fixture permitted, and that photometrics incorporate existing features into the lighting plan. The ordinance also states that if more than 50 percent of the existing fixtures are replaced on a given site, they must comply with the ordinance. The ordinance also defines the terms glare, photometrics and shielded light fixture. The Planning Commission reviewed the ordinance on January 6, 1999. They recommended approval of the ordinance amendment. Since a concern was expressed regarding the glaring park lights at a prior meeting, staff offered the commission the opportunity to review park lighting plans and provided information on other communities' recreational facility lighting standards. This is included in Attachment 2. They did not find it necessary to review lighting plans for parks. Instead they recommended the City Council apply the existing Park and Recreation Commission January20,1999 Page 2 ordinance (as relating to shielding) to recreational facility fixtures. They also recommended the height of fixtures be limited to 65 feet. SUMMARY The following is the ordinance amendment. All new information is in bold type and all outdated information has been struck through. Section 20-913. Lighting. (a) Glare, whether direct or reflected, as differentiated from general illumination shall not be visible beyond the limits of the site from which it originates. (b) No light which is flashing, revolving, or otherwise resembles a traffic-control signal shall be allowed in any area where it could create a hazard for passing vehicular traffic. (c) ting fixtures sSc, uld ~ on poles shall comply with the following: (1) All fixtures must be shielded, high pressure sodium with a total cut-off angle equal to or less than ninety (90) degrees. (2) Fixture height shall not exceed thirty (30) feet. Recreational facility fixtures shall not exceed sixty-five (65) feet in height. (3) Photometrics shall incorporate existing light fixtures, public or private, that may impact the site. (4) All outdoor light fixtures existing and legally installed prior to (ordinance adoption date) are exempt from the requirements of this article, unless work is proposed in any one (1) year period so as to replace fifty (50) percent or more of the existing outdoor light fixtures, or to increase to the extent of fifty (50) percent or more the number of outdoor light fixtures on the premises. Section 20-1. Definitions Glare: Light emitting from a luminaire with an intensity great enough to reduce viewers' ability to see and, in extreme cases, causing momentary blindness. Photometrics: The quantitative measurement of light level and distribution. Park and Recreation Commission January20,1999 Page 3 Shielded Light Fixture: A light fixture with cut-off optics that allows no direct light emissions above a vertical cutoff angle of 90 degrees. ANALYSIS Staff would like to briefly explain the rationale behind each of the requirements in the ordinance amendment. Fixture Height Fixture height is regulated to reduce glare and light trespass. Thirty feet (30) is the average of the existing fixtures in the city and seems to reduce the overall number of fixtures. The shorter the fixture height, the greater the number of fixtures required. If the height is increased (to a reasonable extent), the number of overall fixtures will be reduced. The height limit for recreational facility lights is based upon the Lake Ann Park lights, at 65 feet. These are the tallest lights in the city. (Examples of lighting ordinances that regulate recreational £acility lights are in Attachment 3. The majority require shielded fixtures and the illumination to be confined to the recreational area. Other communities prohibit fixtures over 80 feet in height. Staff found one community that specifies the number of foot-candles based on the use.) Cut-off Fixtures The cut-off fixture requirement aims to reduce glare, night glow and light trespass. If a fixture does not have the opportunity to shine into the sky, the majority of the light will be directed at the around, where it is supposed to be directed. Incorporate Existing Fixtures into Lighting Plan This requirement should prevent duplication in lighting which results in glare and light trespass. In addition, it should reduce the number of total fixtures for a site. For instance, two sites with shared parking can incorporate one another's lights in their lighting plan. Exemption This requirement should eventually bring existing non-conforming lights into compliance, in terms of fixture type. The Planning Commission had concerns that fixture intensity (strength of the lamp) is not addressed in this requirement. Meaning that this exemption will not prohibit the replacement of Park and Recreation Commission January 20, 1999 Page 4 older, existing fixtures with stronger fixtures emitting a greater illumination. The intensity is already regulated by the ordinance. Section 20-1123 states that lights levels shall not exceed one-half foot candle measured at the property line (see Attachment 2). The proposed amendment will not change that requirement. Definitions In conjunction with the ordinance amendment, staff recommends that the following definitions be added to the zoning ordinance: glare, photometrics and shielded light fixture. The term glare is already referred to in the ordinance but is not defined. Glare relates to the field of view. Glare occurs when the intensity of a lamp affects the ability to see. For instance, the sun setting or rising has the same effect (probably to a much greater extent) as a number of unshielded light fixtures. The brightness creates annoyance, discomfort, or affects the ability to see. Photometrics is a lighting plan. It displays the number of foot-candles (A measurement of light falling on a given surface. One foot-candle is equal to the amount of light generated by one candle shining on a square foot surface one foot away. (Attachment 4). Shielded light fixture (see Attachment 5) provides cutoff of the emitted light. The ordinance currently requires that fixtures be shielded. RECOMMENDATION Staff recommends that the Park & Recreation Commission adopt the following motion: "The Park & Recreation Commission recommends the City Council approve the amendment to Section 20-1 Definitions, to include definitions of glare,photometrics and shielded light fixture and Section 20-913. Lighting, to regulate the height, spacing and type of fixtures as included in Attachment 1." ATTACHMENTS 1. Lighting Ordinance Amendment 2. Section 20-913 & Section 20-1123., Lighting 3. Various Recreational Facility Lighting Standards 4. Example of Photometrics and Footcandle Illustration 5. Shielded Light Fixture Illustration 6. Zoning News, October 1995 g:\plan\ck\plan comm~lighting ord amend prc 99.doc CITY OF CHANHASSEN CARVER AND HENNEPIN COUNTIES, MINNESOTA ORDINANCE NO. AN ORDINANCE AMENDING CHAPTER 20 OF THE CHANHASSEN CITY CODE REGARDING LIGHTING THE CITY COUNCIL OF THE CITY OF CHANHASSEN ORDAINS: SECTION 1. Section 20-1, Definitions, by adding the following: Glare means light emitting from a luminaire with an intensity great enough to reduce viewers' ability to see and, in extreme cases, causing momentary blindness. ?hotometrics means the quantitative measurement of light level and distribution. Shielded Light Fixture means a light fixture with cutoff optics that allows no direct light emissions above a vertical cutoff angle of 90 degrees. SECTION 2. Section 20-913 of the Chanhassen City Code is amended by deleting paragraph (c) and replacing it with the following: (c) Lighting fixtures on poles shall comply with the following: (1) All fixtures must be shielded, high pressure sodium with a total cutoff angle equal to or less than 90 degrees. (2) Fixture height shall not exceed thirty (30) feet. Recreational facility fixtures shall not exceed sixty-five (65) feet in height. (3) Photometrics shall incorporate existing light fixtures, public or private, that may impact the site. (4) All outdoor light fixtures existing and legally installed prior to (ordinance adoption date) are exempt from the requirements of this article, unless work is proposed in any one (1) year period so as to replace fifty (50) percent or more of the existing outdoor light fixtures, or to increase to the extent of fifty (50) percent or more the number of outdoor light fixtures on the premises. SECTION 3. PASSED AND ADOPTED on this the City of Chanhassen. ATTEST: This ordinance shall be effective immediately upon its passage and publication. __ day of ,1999, by the City Council of Don Ashworth, City Manager gSadmin\ord\lighting ord.doc Nancy Mancino, Mayor § 20-911 CHANHASSEN CITY CODE tions. Any such fuel storage tank shall be fenced in accordance with the fire code regulations and, in addition, shall be painted in earth tone colors or landscaped with low hedges, ever- greens, or other suitable screening material. (Ord. No. 80, Art. VI, § 15, 12-15-86) Sec. 20-912. Storage of garbage and trash. (a) No exterior incineration of trash or garbage is permism'ble. No exterior storage of trash or garbage is permissible except in an accessory building enclosed by walls and roof, or in closed containers within a totally screened area. Co) Subsection (a) does not apply to covered garbage cans in agricultural and single- family districts. (Ord. No. 80, Art. VI, § 16, 12-15-86) Sec. 20-913. Lighting. (a) Glare, whether direct or reflected, as differentiated from general illumination shall not be visible beyond the limits of the site from which it originates. Ca) No light which is flashing, revolving or otherwise resembles a traffic-control signal shall be allowed in any area where it could create a hazard for passing vehicular traffic. State law reference-Similar provisions, M.S. § 169.073. (c) Lighting fixtures should be of a design consistent with fixtures used in surrounding developments and municipal street lighting. Shielded high pressure sodium fixtures are required. (Ord. No. 80, Art. VI, § 17, 12-15-86) Supp. No. 5 1234.2 § 20-1119 CHANHASSEN CITY CODE (2) Where fractional spaces result, the parking spaces required shall be construed to be the next largest whole number. (3) Parking standards for uses not specifically mentioned in this division shall be deter- mined by the city. The factors to be considered in such determination shall include size of buildingl type of use, number of employees, expected volume and turnover of customer traffic and expected frequency and number of delivery or service vehicles. (Ord. No. 117, § 1, 1-8-90) Sec. 20-1120. Yards. On-site parking and loading facilities shall not be permitted in the required front yard, side yard or rear yard. (Ord. No. 117, § 1, 1-8-90) Sec. 20-1121. Buffer fences and planting screens. On-site parking and loading areas near or abutting residential districts shall be screened in conformance with the provisions of article XXV. (Ord. No. 117, § 1, 1-8-90) Sec. 20-1122. Access. Parking and loading space shall have proper access from a public right-of-way. The number ef width of access drives shall be located to minimize traffic congestion and abnormal traffic hazard. (Ord. No. 117, § 1, 1-8-90) Sec. 20-1123. Lighting. All commercial, industrial, and multifamily parking lots shall be lighted. Lighting shall use shielded fixtures and be directed away from the public right-of-way and adjacent residen- tial or agricultural districts. Sufficient lighting shall be provided to illuminate all areas of the parking lot to provide adequate levels of safety. To minimize off-site impact, light levels as measured at the property line shall not exceed one-half-footcandle as measured at the property line. Sec. 20-1124. Required number of on-site parking spaces. On-site parking areas of sufficient size to provide parking for patrons, customers, sup- pliers, visitors, residents and employees shall be provided on the premises of each use. The following standards are minimum criteria. The city may increase the requirements beyond the minimum based upon findings that, due to proposed use and/or design, that additional parking demand is anticipated. The number of required parking spaces shall comply with the fol- lowing: (1) Calculating the number of spaces shall be in accordance with the following: a. If the number of off-street parking spaces results in a fraction, each fraction of one-half or more shall constitute another space; Supp. No. 2 1250 T~xxm of Blacksburg, VA: Zoning Ordinane.~ Dratt.:Xxri.~ c V- /."k'~i:>ion (, '::'Aq'," wv~v.blacksburgva.us/pande/zone:ord/ar5dvO, This section shall nm rapo!y'i:.:,:.~'twJ~ht::~¢wa,:tes-,:m?.nd.h, lic~t,~iili, tv;r.r, ites in the public right of way or to public street lights. 1~~~-~~ T' '~ Return To Top Sec. 5601 Exterior Lighting Standards Exterior lighting shall be designed at or below the following av. erage maintained footcandles for the various uses. Uniformity shall not exceed a ratio of 6:1, which is a measure ~fthe maximum lighting acheived xvithin the area to the minimum lighting within the area. ' Application Average :. Average Fc~: Application Fc Application Average Fc i ~dmintc~'~,~ iAirports- , ^ // Baseba'll, Softball, ~I Residential · I U, : :Hanger Apron .~ . ( ~Pools, Tennis Courts, J 10 Security and 0.5 ~:Service Apron ' k Horseshoe Ntcbing / Yard Lighting iCommercial ' ! ~ .................... ~ '~0 ~ Parking Areas. ,, :Building i _ LC entTennis ) 30 Exteriors ourts _~_/ Residential - Loading Docks 20 otball, Soccer 30 Other Uses As determined by the iAdministrator based on ilike use. and icompatibility with :surroundinff area. Mallll Buildings: 10 ~~'"x 5 Parking Areas, 5 .;,.o~?enr j 20 ///'~arks ~/Oarde'ns-"~ 0.2 [ R~e Firi~ ~ 10, 5, 50 Bulletin & 50 ~ "1'~ ............. X~'; ............................................................................. ~'~ ................. Poster Boards ~Miniature ~ 'TM Dealerships Sh ' .. o ~x , otective Entrances ootmgFmn=, / 5, ~0 : . ' 5 ~ . ~1 Storage Areas 2 ol-3 5 4 OS 5:2I :effort 40'/.08: Outdoor Lighting Standards IUnderlying Zoning District MaXimum Illumination i :~ (foot candles) i Height (feet) '" g_~k' -- MF_2'0 -- ~ ;.t"~t'l/2. Luminaires with Total Cutoff Angle of 90 Degrees or More When a luminaire has total cutoff angle of 90 degrees or more, the following standards shall apply: http://ww~v.ci:blu e~us/UDC/UDC00125, btm ~ ..................................... i (f°°t.candles) ! Height (feet) MF-20 NB, SO : 0.75 ? 25 3. Luminaires with Total Cutoff Angle of Less than 90 Degrees When a luminaire has total cutoff angle of less than 90 degrees and is located so that the bare light bulb, lamp, or light source is completely shielded from the direct view of an observer five feet above the ground at the point where the cutoff angle intersects the ground, the following standards shall apply: Underlying Zoning District Maximum Illumination Maximum Luminaire (foot candles) , Height (feet) ''''''''' ............................ ............................... ":"'" .................. ............. MF-20 xemptions Because of their unique requirements for nighttime visibility and their limited hours of operation, ball diamonds, playing fields, and tennis courts shall be exempt from the Maximum Illumination and Luminaire Height standards of this section, provided that lights used for such activities shall not exceed a maximum post height of 80 feet. Ball diamonds, playing 3/12,98 6:23 P,M ar)n407~08: Outdoor Lighting Stan~lards http://www.ci.blue-spdngs.mo.usAJDCAJDC00125.btm fields, and tennis'courts may exceed a total cutoff angle of 90 degrees, provided that the luminaire is shielded to prevent light and glare spill over to adjacent property zoned SF-7 or less intensive. The maximum permitted illumination at the lot line of SF-7 or less intensive property shall not exceed two foot candles. G. Measurements 1. Metering Equipment Lighting levels shall be measured in foot candles with a direct-reading, portable light meter. The meter shall have a color and cosine-corrected sensor with multiple scales and shall read within an accuracy of plus or minus five percent. 2. Method of,Measurement The meter sensor shall be mounted not more than six inches above ground level in a horizontal position. Readings shall be taken only afl.er the cell has been exposed long enough to provide a constant reading. Measurements shall be made after dark when the light source in question is turned on, then when it is turned off. The difference between the two readings shall be compared to the maximum permitted illumination and property line at ground level. This procedure eliminates the effects of moonlight and other ambient light. 3. Exterior Lighting Plan At the time any exterior lighting is installed or substantially modified, and whenever a building permit is sought, an exterior lighting plan shall be submitted to the Director of Community Development in order to determine whether the requirements of this section have been met. 3of3 3 129S6:237M c. No freestanding or building+mounted area Lighting Fixture shall be located higher than 16 feet above finish grade level, d. Unshielded area Lighting Fixtures located within 15 feet of the property line shall be provided with a House Shield baffle to reduce the degree of light flowing onto Adjacent'Areas. ~ Sports fields and tennis/racquet ball courts may be --lighted provided that Lighting Fixtures are provided.with -baffles and/or shields which limit the Lighting Fixture's .'.direct light distribution to the. playing area and which -block all view to the Lighting Fixture's lamp from Adjacent Areas. C. Lighting of signs and Storefronts. 1. Exterior signs may be lighted, provided the sign conforms to the requirements of § 30.63, and a Sign Lighting Permit is obtained. The lighting of exterior signs shall conforn to the following: a o Signs may be externally illuminated using Incandescent or fluorescent sources. Hetal halide sources not exceeding 150 Watts may be used for exterior sign illumination under a Conditional Use Permit' Self-illuminated exterio.r s.igns shall not be O 0 ?he lumina~lce of lighted exte-.~_-ior ~igns shall not exceed 100 fL, measured at a distance of 25 feet along the normal from the sign to a standing observer. 2. Interior ~igns which are so placed as to be vis'ible from the.exterior may he lighted, provided the sign donforms to tile requirements of § 30.63, and a Sign Lighting Permit is obtained. The lighting of interior signs 'shall conform to the following: Interior signs may be.externally ill'uminated using Incandescent or fluorescent sources. Self-illuminated interior signs shall be permitted if located at least five (5) feet from any point (~D) EXTERIOR USE. LIGHTING I I luminat ion (Footcandles) Maximum Minimum UTILITY LIGHTING Min. Visibi I i ty - Driving 1 .5 Pedestrian Ways 1 .5 General landscaped areas 2 1 AREA LIGHTING Parking Lots 2 1 BUILDING EXTERIORS Entrances (frequent use) 4 2 Entrances (infrequent use) 1 .5 Vital Locations or Structures 4 2 Bui lding Surroundings 2 1 OUTDOOR RECREATIONAL USES Because of and I ~mi ted areas, such d~ scussed. considered: their un~que requirements for nighttime visibility hours of operat ion, the I ight ~ ng of act lye recreat ~on as for hal I f ~etds and tenn~ s cour ts are not However, the roi Iow~n9 condi t ~ons should be L~ght ing for outdoor recreat ~ona I uses should not exceed a maxtmum f ixture height of GO feet. L~ght ing for outdoor recr eat ~ona uses may exceed total cutoff angle of 90 degrees providing the I ~ght source ] s sh ~e I dad to prevent I ght and glare sp~ I I over to adjacent proper ty The ma× ~mum ~ I lum~ nat ~on at the ~ nter ~or buf fer ne should not exceed two footcandles at grade. ADD I T I ONAL PROV 1. No fl 2. L~ght areas SIONS ckerlng or flashing I,ghts sh3 sources should not be located w except on pedest r ~an walkways. be thin perm~ t ted, any buffer MEASUREMLNT Meter ng equipment. Light ~ ng levels are be measured Jn footcandles w~ t h a d~ rect-reading, por table I i ght meter. The meter typ ~ cai ly has a color and Lighting Ordinance of Cloudcroft, New Mexico Page 3 of 4 (d) The outdoor operation of searchlights, lasers or other high- intensity beams is prohibited. 7-7-5 Other Requirements. (a) Flashing Lights. The use of flashing, rotating or pulsating lights in/on any outdoor sign or other lighting device is prohibited after one (1) year from the effective date of this ordinance. This provision shall not apply to flashing, rotating or pulsating lights intended to warn of hazards and danger. (b) Light Trespass and Residential spill-over. In addition to the general provisions of this Ordinance, offstreet lighting shall be shielded and/or directed in such a manner that it illuminates only the user's premises and does not spill over into neighboring residential areas so as to interfere with the peaceful enjoyment of residential or public properties. (c) No lighting fixture or device may be operated in such manner as to constitute a hazard or danger to persons, or to safe vehicular operation. (d) Signs and BillBoards. Illuminating fixtures for advertising or other signs shall be such that the illumination is confined to the area of the sign or billboard; no significant direct spill-over is permitted. Under no conditions may signs or billboards be illuminated from below. Any such illuminating fixture shall be placed above its respective sign or billboard such that the secondary (specular) reflected light from the surface of the sign or billboard is directed down toward the ground. (e) Motion Detector Security Lights. Motion detector security lights, which are normally "off" and which are activitated "on" for less than 4 minutes occasionally when motion is detected, are exempt from strict control of emission angles as defined in Section 7-7-3, but are not exempt from Sections 7-'7-5 (b) or (c) . Outdoor Recreational Facilities. Outdoor recreational facilities designed for specifically scheduled sporting events are exempt from the specific shielding requirements of Section 7-7-3. In its place, lighting for outdoor recreational facilities shall be so designed, installed and operated as to confine at least 90 percent of the illumination to the recreational area. Recreational facility fixtures shall be on elevated poles or structures so that illumination is directed downward. No significant illumination may extend above a horizontal plane from the lighting fixture. Illumination from recreational facility fixtures shall be shielded to minimize glare extending toward roadways or other places where impairment of motorists' vision might cause hazard. Ail such recreational facilities shall have either (a) automatic shut-off timer devices, or (b) a designated official with responsibility for extinguishing the illumination at close of the recreational activity. (g) In the case of flags, statues or other top-of-pole mounted objects which cannot be illuminated with down-lighting, upward lighting may be used only in the form of one narrow-cone spotlight which confines the illumination to the object of interest. 7-7-6 Nonconforming Fixtures "Grandfather Provision" Except as provided in Section 7-7-5, all outdoor lighting fixtures existing and legally installed and operative before the effective date of this ordinance are exempt from the requirements of this Ordinance. Whenever a nonconforming fixture is replaced or moved, the http://cfa-v~'ww.harvard.edu/c£a/ps/nelpag/of£utt 1 .html 6/9/98 Th~ ;aho.v~ ~:~q,x'n.'..d ,plans, descriptions and data shall be Sec 8.2. Additional Submi.,~,sion.. sufficiently complete to enable the plans ex-a,-nSner 'to ~'e. acli),y determine whether compliance with the requirements of this Code will be secured. If such -p..lar,s.. O_,~criptions and data cannot enable this ready determination, by reason of the nature or configu.r-at~on of~,'., devices, fixtures, or lamps proposed, the applicant shall additionally submit as evidence of comt~l},a, nce to enable such determination such certified reports of tests as will do so provided that these tests shall have been performed and certified by a recognized testing laboratory. Sec. 8.3. Subdivision Plat Certification. If any subdivision proposes to have installed street or other common or public area outdoor lighting, the final plat shall contain a statement certifying that the applicable provisions of the Tucson/Pima County Outdoor Lighting Code will be adhered to. Sec 8.4. Lomp or Fixture Sulpstitutiqn. Should any outdoor light fixture or the type of light source therein be changed after the permit has been issued, a change request must be submitted to the building official for his approval, together with adequate information to assure compliance with this code, which must be received prior to substitution. Section 9. Prohibitions. See 9.1. Mercury Vapor Lamps Fixtures and Lamps. The installation, sale, offer for sale, lease or purchase of any mercury vapor fixture or lamp for use as outdoor lighting is prohibited. Sec 9.2. Certain Other Fixtures and Lamps. The installation, sale, offering for sa!e, lease or purchase of an)' Iow pressure sodium, high pressure sodium, metal halide, fluorescent, quartz or incandescent outdoor lighting fixture or lamp the use of which is not allowed by Table 5 is prohibited. Sec 9.3. Laser Source Light. Except as provided in minor Section 9.4, the use of laser source light or any similar high intensity light for outdoor advertising or entertainment, when projected above ,..he horizontal is prohibited. Sec 9.4. Searchlights. The operation of searchlights for advertising purposes is prohibited in AreaA and is prohibited in unincorporated Pima County. In the territorial limits of the City of Tucson, the operation of searchlights for advertising purposes is prohibited in Area A and is prohibited in Area B between 10:00 p.m. and sunrise the following morning. Sec. 9.5. (City only.) Outdoor Advertising Off-Site Signs. Electrical illumination of outdoor advertising off-site signs is prohibited in Area A. Electrical illumination of outdoor advertising off-site signs between the hours of l 1:00 p.m. and sunrise is prohibited in Area B. (.,,.Section I0. Special Sec I0.I. Recreationa. Facilities. An)' light source permitted by this Code may be used for lighting of outdoor rec~ ~'-ac~ ~--~blic or pr ,,'ate), such as, but not limited to, football fields, soccer fields, bageball fields, softball fields, tennis courts, auto race tracks, horse race tracks or show areas, provided all of the following conditions are met: a. Lighting for parking lots and other areas surrounding the playing field, court, or track shall comply with this Code for lighting in the specific Area as defined in Section 4.4 and 4.5 of this Code. b. All fixtures used for event lighting shall be fully shielded as defined in Section 5 of this Code, or be designed or provided with sharp cut-off capability, so as to minimize up-light, spill-light, and glare. , c. All events shall be scheduled so as to complete all activity before or as near to 10:30 p.m. as practical, but under no circumstances shall any illumination of the playing field, court, or track be permitted after 11:00 p.m. e~,cept to conclude a scheduled event that was in progress before 11:00 p.m. and circumstances prevented concluding before I I:00 p.m. Exception: (City only.) Any portion of a recreational facility located within 300 feet of a road or street designated as a scenic route shall be lighted u: ng only fixtures approved for use under this Code for the Area, as defined in Section 4.4 and 4.5 Of this Code, in which said recreational facility is located. Exception: (County only.) Recreational facilities located along roads and streets designated as scenic routes shall be lighted using only fixtures approved for the Area in which they are located. Sec. 10.2. Outdoor Display Lots. Any light source permitted by this Code may be used for lighting of outdoor display lots such as, but not limited to, automobile sales or rental, recreational vehicle sales, or building material sales, provided all of the following conditions are met: a. Lighting for parking lots and other areas surrounding the display lot shall comply with this Code for lighting in the specific area as defined in Section 4.4 and 4.5 of this Code, b. All fixtures used for display lighting shall be fully shielded as defined in Section 5 of this Code, or be designed or provided with sharp cutoff capability, so as to minimize up-light, spill-light, or glare. c. Display lot lighting shall be turned off within thirty minutes after closing of the business. Under no circumstances shall the full illumination of the lot be permitted after 11:00 p.m. Any lighting used after 1 I:00 p.m. shall be used as security lighting. .} Section 11. Temporary Exemption Sec 11.I. Request;Renewal;Information Required. Any person may submit a written request, on a form prepared by the .jurisdiction, to the building official for a temporary exemption request. A temporary exemption shall contain the following information: ,, I. specific exemption or exemptions requested; 2. type and use of outdoor light fixture involved; 3. duration of time requested exemption; 4. type of lamp and calculated lumens; 5. total wattage of lamp or lamps; 6. proposed location on premises of the outdoor light fixture(s); 7. previous temporary exemptions, if any, and addresses of premises thereunder; 8. physical size of outdoor light fixture(s) and type of shielding provided; 9. such other data and information as may be required by the building official. Sec. 11.2. Approval: Durati.on. The building official shall have five business days from the date of submission of the request for temporary exemption to act, in writing, on the request. If approved, the exemption shall be valid for not more than thirty days from the date of issuance of the approval. The approval shall be renewable at the discretion of the building official upon a consideration of all the circumstances. Each such renewed exemption she!! be valid for not more than thirty days. Sec 11.3. Disapproval; Appeal. If the request for temporary exemption is disapproved, the person making the request wilt have the appeal rights provided in Section 13. Section 12. Other Exemptions. Sec 12.1. Nonconformance I. Mercury vapor lamps in use for outdoor lighting on the effective date of the ordinance codified in this chapter shall not be so used. 2. (City.) Bottom-mounted outdoor advertising sign lighting shall not be used. 2. (County) Bottom-mounted outdoor advertising sign lighting shall not be used, except as provided in Section 7. '3. 'All other outdoor light fixtures lawfully installed prior to and operable on the effective date of the ordinance codified in this chapter are exempt from all requirements of this Code except those regulated in Section 7 and in minor Sections 9.3 and 9.4 and in Section I0. There shall be no change in use or lamp type, or any replacement or structural alteration made, without conforming to all applicable requirements of this Code. Sec. 12.2. Fossil Fuel Light. All outdoor light fixtures producing light directly by the combustion of natural gas or other fossil fuels are exempt fron: all reeuirements of this Code. 3.82 5.73 §.88~ 4.49 5.~7 E.26 5.97 6.2? 4.91 4.§5 5.18 5.79 5, 77 5.70 4.84 4.26 3.81 4.96 3.90 5.37 3.94 S. 31 4.97 6.16 5.21 4.30 4.97 3.67 4.45 3.52 3.28 3,19 3.35 3.19 4.1'7 ~7.43 4.59 3.12 GG ~7.61 4.64 3.23 2~94  52 3.14 6.6-4 5 5.10 4.15 4.03 5.94 4.2o / //9.0~ 2.82 3.00 70 5. \ \ 2.48 2.20 2.64 2.88 GG 6.20 7.44 4.47 3.10 2.29 1.82 1.94 4.53 4.03 2.91 2.27 1.84/(~I ~,~7 1.49 1.6~ 0 56 0 53 1.22 0.90 0.83 0.55 0.44 0.4I 0.8 0.67 0.5! 0.38 032 0.30 fl 80 0.52 2.14 3.57 5/ XX 3.06 3.54 '"~',,~94 ! 78 0.95 0.53 i.89 8.21 7.42 3.89 0.72 XX ,95 1.94 O.9O -- RELOCATED LIGHT PROPOSED HOULIHAN'S RESTAURANT XX .O3 5.40 / / / GG 1.52 0.40 0,37 4.40 PHOTOMETRICS 1.97 2.39 1.87 1.01 1.33 1.10 0.96 0.77 0,52 Z 0 0 I ! / -I -I OCTOBER 1995 AMERICAN PLANNING ASSOCIATION Shedding Light on the Urban Landscape .. By Fay Dolnick x,. /~- lum;naire k LUMINA/RE WITH tESS THAN 90* CUTOFF NO CUTOFF LUMINAIRE 90* CUTOFF LUMINAIRE The amou,t of cutoff provided i, a lightj~xtureprotects against excessive glare and light trespass. A cutoff lumlnaire (right) ensures that no light is emitted above a horizontal li, e parallel to the ground. A luminaire with a cutoff of less than 90 degrees (mida/e) completely shields the light source j~om an observerJTvefeet above the ground at the pohtt where the cutoff angle intersects the ground. Exterior lighting has seldom been a priority for planners, who often are not knowledgeable about the subject. This aspect of the urban environment more often has been handled by engineers, public works officials, and lighting trade and utility company reFresentatives. Decisions concerning lighting types and design often have been made by those public officials ~vho pay ~he bills and must face the grim reality of cost containment. .But all that is changing. Several factors play a part in what seems to be the general public's increased interest in the visual environment. These include a heightened awareness of the aesthetic value of their communities, consciousness of environmental pollution, and increased fear of crime. These concerns have complicated the basic purpose of light--to illuminate and provide security--and can create situations in which these purposes are at odds with each other. Most communities have to recognize and deal with the problem of glare. Light trespass from one land use to another needs to be regulated. Residential neighborhoods must be protected from glare from parking lots, sports facilities, and other recreational events like outdoor concerts. Streets need to be lit well enough to give residents a feeling of security. The lighting must also be attractive enough to make commercial and recreational facilities inviting and create a lively and prosperous setting. This issue of ZoningNews reports on communities that have produced inventive lighting plans and ordinances and have taken a holistic approach, addressing lighting in all areas of the community and involving a cross-section of citizens in the process. It also lodks at some good regulations and the measures they take to control glare, protect privacy, and promote safety. produce light by passing an electric current through a gas. Very few communities in the United States still use incandescent lamps for street lighting because, although they produce a soft, white, attractive light, they are both costly and wasteful of enerD'. One community that docs--Kcnnebunkport, Maine-- is discussed belo~vo HID lamps include mercury vapor, high-pressu~e sodium (HPS), Iow-pressure sodium (LPS), and metal halide. Mercury vapor lighting produces a harsh yellow light that is aesthetically unappealing but cheap to maintain. It was used widely in the United States until the introduction of sodium lighting in the 1970s. HPS has now become the nation's main source of exterior lighting. Because of its strong illumination and because it distorts color less than LPS, law enforcement officials prefer high- pressure sodium. For them, identification of suspects is crucial. Citizens have also come to prefer it as their fear of street crime intensifies. Some lighting professionals, however, feel that the safety feature has been overrated and that the glare produced by HPS is a hazard in itself. Metal halide produces a warm white light that is akin to incandescent lighting, is aesthetically pleasing, and produces excellent color rendition. But it suffers from high maintenance costs owing to a lower lamp life. "Group rdamping rather than spot relamping is the answer to this problem," says Nancy Clanton, president of Clanton Engineering in Boulder, Colorado. Clanton says most of the costs of replacing lamps are labor costs and that replacing whole areas of lamps at one time regardless of whether or not all are burned out is a cost-efficient maintenance scheme. Lighting Glossary Exterior lighting types fall into two main categories-- incandescent lamps (the type used to illuminate most homes) and the more prevalent high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps. Incandescent lamps produce light by heating a filament to high temperatures through an electric current while HID lamps Lighting Plans Kennebunkport, Maine. This town has "one of the two best lighting ordinances in thc United States," says Tony Dater, a consultant in Bid&ford, Maine. His other choice: Tucson, Arizona. First developed in 1970 by a committee of citizens and planners chaired by city engineer Peter Talmadgc, the ordinance has been updated regularly, most recently in 1992. It is short and simple and uses ample graphics. Its unique feature is that it controls glare and light trespass ~oy regulating the height of the luminaire (light fixture) and its setback from the property line. The height of the luminaire may be increased ~o 25 feet as it moves away from the property line. In conjunction with this, a full cut-offshade, which allows no direct light above a horizontal plane, is required for light over a certain degree of brightness. According to Talmadge, this system is easier and cheaper to enforce than the more conven- tional method of regulating glare by measuring footcandles (a standard measurement of illumination over a surface area of one square foot), which requires the enforcement officer to be equipped with expensive light-calibrating instruments. Talmadge is one of the many lighting professionals who feel strongly that, in the interests of security, most communities ... /~ require too much brightness. · ' ./-il/~-'"~"l This results in dazzling, glare, .... ~z ~'l which .... itself Commumlws lockrng(~(;! ,s in unsafe. full-s¢ole'tighting ~I Kennebunkport has found its ~ .-. · .~ r. "l incandescent lighting pICII'I$ STill 171USTJaI'cIIT · ,, ~. ., r · · . . ? fi' · , economically VlaDle because it prows~ons tel ,,qro, tec? i keeps the wattage low. :{ motoristI 6"d' Although the original ~:mdestnon~~ ,..: decision to retain or!t o .aa4 incandescent lighting still . t,*.. , :~:Q-"ffL-}Tff i lighting is being discussed :. parttcu any n a, r, ' , ' ,. 2' i-- · · :~! i .,.' Wltiqtlqekoentrallvlalne i T~s!a'?'ttal pro. perly.~.:~ power Company. Talmadge ~=.-k~i~!L=L.?~ ' :" ....... ~ I emphasizes that 35-watt LPS ,--- J 1 2_~ ..... '..~-' 7_. ~ lamps provide good light. Most utility companies disagree, but Talmadge feels that a dialogue on this subject can be productive. Tucson. In 1972, Tucson passed the first light pollution code in the nation. It has undergone regular revisions, most recently in 1994. In 1974, Pima County produced a virtually identical ordinance, and many other Arizona communities have adopted ail or part of this code. The ordinance prohibits mercury-vapor lighting altogether and HPS and quartz lighting :for most outdoor uses. Uplighting on billboards is also banned in some areas; in others, it must be turned offbetween 11 p.m. and sunrise. It also prohibits searchlights and laser-source lights for outdoor advertising· Lighting for parking lots and sports facilities must be fully shielded so that no light is emitted above a horizontal plane. LPS lighting, which is essentially all one color, has been adopted throughout the community. The proximity of the Kitt Peak National Observatory influenced the development of this ordinance. The telescopes in use in observatories cannot filter out the broad-band lighting in HPS, and astronomers have successfully argued against its usc in ~urrounding communities. They prefer the monochromatic lighting of LPS, which the telescopes can filter out. Kansas City, Missouri. Like many cities across the nation, Kansas City is phasing out its mercury-vapor lighting in favor of more efficient HPS streetlights. Last fall, the city and Kansas City Power and Light Company initiated a Neighborhood Streetlight Demonstration Project in two neighborhoods in an attempt to determine the best kind of lighting for an urban residential neighborhood. The neighborhoods included single- and multifamily residences, businesses, churches, and schools. One high-crime area was chosen because the perception of safety was deemed important. This pilot area was divided into two 20-block sections. HPS lights were installed in one and metal halide in the other. The city surveyed residents, business people, and community officials and found that all groups felt that the new streetlights were an improvement. Residents and business people were evenly divided, however, in their preferences for metal halide and HPS. Community officials, perhaps because of lower maintenance costs, have decided to install HPS lights. Nancy Clanton, whose firm designed the program, is pleased that Kansas City is using this pilot to help develop a lighting plan for the whole city. Clanton feels that cities too often approach their lighting piecemeal instead of looking at the overall context. She hopes the experiment will interest other cities. Toronto. Last fall, Toronto, the last major North American city to be served almost entirely by an incandescent lighting system installed after World War II, completely retrofitted its street lights. Yearly costs approaching $4 million impelled the city to seek a cheaper system. The choice became a hot political issue. Not surprisingly, the commissioner of public works preferred HPS because of its low capital and operating costs. But strong opposition within the community led to the formation of the Street and Lane Lighting Sub-Committee consisting of citizens, council members, and representatives from the planning and public works departments and Ontario Hydro. The committee initiated test installations and recommended warm-white metal halide lights (the closest in character to incandescent lighting) in the traditional acorn- shaped lamps already in use. "Metal halide costs more, but we made a decision that it is worth more," says committee member Alfred Holden. The city installed 40,000 of these high-efficiency laml~s, expecting to reduce electric bills--by about $2 million annually--as well as carbon monoxide emissions from generating stations. Ontario Hydro's Street Smart Program will reimburse the city for 25 percent of the cost of replacing existing fixtures. The entire project is expected to cost approximately $15 million. Des Moines. The Riverfront Lighting Master Plan in Iowa's capital is the product ora cooperative endeavor by planners, engineers, transportation engineers, parks and recreation officials, and outside landscape and lighting professionals, architects, and power company representatives. Planning department staff led the Riverftont Lighting Committee, which wanted to realize the riverfront's potential as a major recreational source and reverse public perception of the area as unsafe. Thc committee chose to ban high-intensity floodlights, choosing a combination of HPS lamps over bridges and metal halide lamps on the Des Moines River esplanade. The city council adopted the plan in 1992, but it has been only partially implemented due to difficulties in obtaining funding. Nonetheless, it is an example of a lighting plan in which engineers and planners were part of the same process and could endorse what they felt was a solid workable plan in which they agreed on aesthetic and maintenance issues. Basic Ordinance Provisions Communities lacking full-scale lighting plans still must draft provisions to protect motorists and pedestrians from the hazards of glare and restrict light trespass, particularly near residential property. In The Subdivision and Site Plan Ha,~dbook (Center for Urban Policy Research, 1989), David Listokin and Carole Walker recommend that communities follow standards provided by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) or use a plan designed by the utility company. However, some lighting professionals feel that utility companies routinely pressure for excessive illumination· In any case, Listokin and Walker recommend that lighting be illuminating Engineering Society of North America 345 East 47th St. New York, NY 10017 212-705-7913 International Dark Sky Association 3545 North Stewart Tucson, AZ 85716 New England Light Pollution Advisory Group Daniel W.E. Green Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 60 Garden Street Cambridge, MA 02138 R.E.S.V. Inc. Debra L. Sachs--Principal Investigator Michael Munson 11 Pearl St. Essex Junction, VT 05452 802-879-0605 Urban Consortium Energy Task Force Chittenden County Regional Planning Commission P.O. Box 108 Essex Junction, VT 05453 802-658-3004 De Chiara, Joseph and Lee Koppelman, Site Planning Standard~, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. Kendig, Lane, with Susan Connor, Cranston Byrd, and Judy Heyman, Performance Zoning, Chicago: APA Planners Press, 1980. Listokin, David and Carole Walker, The Subdivision and Site Plan Handbook, New Brunswick, N.J.: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, 1989. Smith, Thomas P., The Aesthetics of Parking, PAS Report No. 411, Chicago: APA 1988. Cutoff: the point at which all light rays emitted by a lamp, light source, or luminaire are completely eliminated (cut oft) at a specific angle above the ground. CutoffAngle: the angle formed by a line drawn from the direction of light rays at the light source and a line perpendicular to the ground from the light source, above which no light is emitted. in extreme cases, causing momentary blindness. ~ · : '. ' Light Trespass: the shining °f light .' produced by a luminaire beyond the boundaries of the property on which it is located. Luminaire: a complete lighting unit consisting of a light source and all necessary mechanical, electrical, and decorative parts. Ail definitions are j%m Performance Zoning, except definitions o flight trespass and glare, which come j¢om the Kennebunkport, Maine, ordinance. provided at intersections, along walkways, at entr)qvays, between buildings, and in parking areas. They also advise more lighting on commercial than on residential streets. As to the spacing and height of light fixtures, they suggest: · Spacing of standards shall be equal to approximately four times the height of the standard. ,~ The maximum height of standards shall not exceed the maxi- mum building height permitted, or 25 feet, whichever is less. ,- The height and shielding of lighting standards shall provide proper lighting without hazard to drivers or nuisance to residents. The authors do not specify standards for shielding, but many lighting professionals say only full cutoff shields, which allow no light above a horizontal plane, are acceptable. Lane Kendig, in J~erformance Zoning (APA Planners Press, 1980), says a light fixture's maximum height should depend on the amount of shielding provided. Many uses have the option of providing a lower light post with a noncutofftype luminaire or a higher pole, up to sixty (60) feet with a luminaire that totally cuts offlight spillover at a cutoff angle smaller than ninety (90) degrees. Kendig exempts outdoor lighting for night sports facilities such as baseball diamonds, playing fields, and tennis courts but requires that the illumination source be shielded at a 90- degree angle. The lES recommends two footcandles of illumination for pedestrians to have good perception of obstacles more than 50 feet away on a street or sidewalk. It recommends two footcandles for attendant parking in a commercial area and one for self-parking. In Site Planning Standards, De Chiara and Koppelman concur, but some parking consultants advise that the real or perceived dangers of parking environments require an average of five footcandles for adequate safety. Glare and Light Below are some examples of zoning ordinances that regulate glare and light spill by prescribing a combination ofluminaire height, cutoffshields, and precise footcandle measurements. Greenwich, Connecticut, requires that, with some exceptions, ail light sources be shielded so that, "[a]djacent to business uses, the light source shall not be visible at a height greater than five (5) feet above ground level" and "[a]djacent to residential uses, the light source shall not be visible at ground level or above." Any type of uplighting that is not lighting buildings, trees, shrubs, or site surfaces is prohibited. This ordinance does not differentiate between residential and business zones except that perimeter lighting in residential zones must be limited to 0.1 footcandle anywhere along a property line. Vail, Colorado, requires that developers submit an outdoor lighting plan "separately from the site plan or landscape plan, and · . . show the location, the height above grade, the type of illumination (such as incandescent, halogen, high-pressure sodium etc.), the source lumens, and the luminous area for each source light which is proposed." A pole light may not be higher than 35 feet in a commercial area, eight feet in a residential area, or eight feet in either if "affixed to vegetation." In commercial areas, all light sources higher than 15 feet must be fitted with a full cutoffshield. All flashing lights are prohibited. Eatontown, New Jersey. The light pollution ordinance requires that, "at the property line of subject property illumination from light fixtures shall not exceed 0.1 footcandles on residentially zoned property or 0.5 footcandles on business zoned property, measured on a vertical plane." lES recommended levels are to be used in roadway lighting, parking lots, and recreational and sports facilities. Shielding is required on almost all outdoor lighting. Bronxville, New York, is still lit mainly by incandescent lighting. Provision is made for some fluorescent and metal halide lamps, but high- and low-pressure sodium, mercury- 'vapor, ancl neon lights are prohibited, as are flashing lights, searchlights, and cobra head fixtures. Metal halide fixtures in parking lots, pedestrian paths, and building perimeter areas must be fitted with full cutoff. In those areas, lamps with decorative fixtures may not exceed the equivalent of 150 watts {incandescent). Juneau, Alaska, relates the height of light fixtures to "the lamp size, the type ofluminaire which is being used, and the purpose of the lighting." Heights range from below eye level through 10 to 15 feet in malls and walkways to 60 feet and 100 feet for large-area lighting such as parking lots and highway interchanges. Shielding is required on all outdoor lighting under 35 feet to reduce hazards from glare. Lighting intensity guidelines are: 1.5 footcandles in parking lots; three in intersections; 0.2 in residential developments; and one along the peri.meter o£property lines. Ofher Developments No national standards for outdoor lighting exist in the U.S., but states are getting involved. A Maine law bars use of state funds to replace any permanent outdoor lighting fixture unless state- mandated guidelines for the design of the fixture are followed. The guidelines say that any new or replacement fixture must be equipped with a full cutoff shade. Connecticut has passed legislation controlling glare, and Wisconsin, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Texas are considering doing so. In Vermont, the Chittenden County Regional Planning Commission has hired Michael Munson, of the Research Evaluation Specialists of Vermont, to prepare a manual, "A Site Lighting Guide for Vermont Municipalities." The commission created an Urban Consortium Energy Task Force with funding from the U.S. Department of Energy and other sources. The task force aims to educate communities on general principles of good lighting and to help in crafting workable ordinances. Three communities (urban, suburban, and rural) will be selected for case studies as part of this process. APA's Northern New England chapter and thc Vermont Planners Association are cooperating in this venture. Much of the impetus behind the banning of HPS lighting in the Southwest has come from the International Dark Sky Association, formed 13 years ago by David Crawford, an astronomer at the Kilt Peak Observatory. San Diego, which modeled its ordinance on Tucson's, has since bowed to pressure from law enforcement officials and the public and reinstalled HPS lighting in some areas. Crawford and his colleagues view this as evidence that they need to intensify their public education efforts. The organization has helped communities nationwide prepare light control ordinances and also has focused attention on the problem of light trespass in urban areas. .Zoning News is a monthly newsletter published by the American Planning Association. Subscriptions are available for $45 (U.S.) and $54 (foreign). Michael B. Barker, Executive Director; Frank S. So, Deputy Executive Director; William R. Klein, Director of Research. Zoning News is produced at APA. Jim Schwab, Editor; Fay Dolnick, Scott Dvorak, Michelle Gregory, San jay Jeer, Megan Lewis, Marya Morris, Marry Roupe, Laura Thompson, Reporters; Cynthia Cheski, Assistant Editor; Lisa Barton, Design and Production. Copyright ©1995 by American Planning Associatiom 122S. Michigan Ave., Suite 1600, Chicago, IL 60603. The American Planning Association has headquarters offices at 1776 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20036. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the American Planning Association. Printed on recycled paper, including 50-70% recycled fiber .and 10% postconsumer waste. ~ 4 The New England Light Pollution Advisory Group (NELPAG) is based at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and directed by Daniel Green, who argues that reducing wattage and fully shielding lamps are more important than the choice of lighting type. NELPAG has also produced an information package for writing city and town ordinances and lobbies for state lighting reform legislation. Planners may find it rewarding to develop a clear sense of purpose about public lighting and to become more involved in its design and regulation in their communities. Community lighting often grows to inappropriate and unnecessary levels, producing energy waste, rising fiscal costs, and glare. It is advisable to consider sources beyond the local utility company, for other excellent resources exist. Communities are most successful when they receive input from a cross-section of the community, including planners, public works officials, utility company representatives, interested citizens, and lighting design professionals, all engaging in constructive dialogue. Reports Adult Entertainment Study Bookstore, Department of City Planning, City of New' York, 22 Reade St., New York, N.Y 10007. November 1994. 96pp. $5 plus $1 postage. 41 cents sales tax unless ordered with tax-exemption form. As reported in Zoning News last month, Ne~v York City is in the m.idst of revamping its adult use zoning regulations citywide. This study was part of the planning effort that prepared those regulations and contains a good deal of interesting data on patterns of adult use concentrations throughout the city. It is also valuable to planners and zoning administrators elsewhere for its revie~v of major adult use studies in other cities across the country, as well as for its history of legal developments in this field and of the evolution of adult uses in relation to advances in cinematography. The study notes, for example, that $100 films have now become $5 videotapes, altering the marketing of adult movies. Fortress America: Gated and Walled Communities in the United States EdwardJ. Blakely and Mary Gail Snyder. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 113 Brattle St., Cambridge, MA 02138. 1995. 63 pp. $10 plus $3.50 shipping and handli,g (50 cents shipping for each additional copy). Acknowledging a dearth of scholarly analysis to date on the subject of gated communities, this working paper attempts an investigative study drawing heavily on journalistic sources and interviews with focus groups. Illustrating a trend toward withdrawal from the larger society, the authors raise serious questions about the segregative impacts of walled communities and even the viability of democratic government where citizens have erected such walls. Going well beyond planning and zoning questions about the phenomenon it studies, this paper attacks the very philosophy that undergirds the growing trend toward enclosure. -)